Indice dei contenuti per February 2016 in BBC Science Focus Magazine

Let me introduce you to the new BBC Focus . For the last six months we’ve been in the lab, experimenting on a new look. Like any good experiment, this process all began with some in-depth research. We met and talked to hundreds of our readers to rediscover what makes BBC Focus special, and interestingly, one word kept coming up: wonder. Whether you want to know why the sky is blue or if we’re alone in the Universe, curiosity is a lifelong passion. You want to know what makes the world tick and what it will look like in the future. Our job is to fuel that curiosity and reward it with dispatches from award-winning photographers and writers from around the world. In practice, I hope, the result is something…

I was surprised that 1932 did not get a mention in the ‘Best of the rest’ in your 2015 review of the year (Christmas, p32). In this momentous year, several significant discoveries were made in physics which contributed greatly to our understanding of the relationship between matter and energy and of the structure of the nucleus. 1932 saw the construction of one of the first particle accelerators by Irish physicist Ernest Walton and Englishman John Cockcroft, which they then used to bombard lithium nuclei with a beam of high-speed protons, thereby achieving the first artificial splitting of a nucleus, as well as verifying Einstein’s famous E=mc2 equation by experiment for the first time. In February, James Chadwick made his first observations of the latest sub-atomic particle to be discovered –…

BEFORE TELEPORTATION Entanglement allows particles to be teleported from one place to another. The ‘source’ particle to be transported is allowed to interact with one of a pair of entangled particles, whose partner (the ‘receiver’) is then dispatched, physically, to the destination. TELEPORTATION BEGINS The ‘source’ then has all its properties beamed to the receiver by two routes: some directly, and some via the receiver’s entangled partner. This circumvents the uncertainty principle, which forbids perfect knowledge of all a particle’s properties simultaneously. The receiver particle now has the same properties as the source.…

What are they? A robot barbershop quartet? Way off. They’re four new elements recently added to the periodic table. Their atomic numbers are 113, 115, 117 and 118. Who found them? Russia’s Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California detected 115, 117 and 118. Element 113 was found by a team from Japan’s Riken Institute. How were they created? By slamming lighter nuclei into one another at high speed and looking for the radioactive signatures produced as the new elements decayed. But why the silly names? The current names are just based on the atomic numbers. They’ll receive official names in the coming months. Maybe they’ll name one Focusium……

What did they do? Researchers at the Bristol BioEnergy Centre embedded a pair of socks with microbial fuel cells – packs of bacteria that convert waste fluids into electricity. They added tubing that looped under the wearer’s heel and into the fuel cells, before filling the pipes with fresh urine. What did they find? Walking in these socks puts regular pressure on the soft tubing, pumping the urine through the microbial fuel cells via a simple circulation system. The bacteria inside can generate enough electricity to send wireless signals to a PC receiver. No batteries required . Why did they do that? Glamorous they may not be, but these socks could save lives, enabling a lost hiker in the wilderness to transmit their coordinates to search-and-rescue teams. Everyone laughed when…

DISTRACTED PARENTS Want your baby to grow up happy? Then ditch your smartphone. Researchers at the University of California, Irvine have found that rat pups raised by caring but chaotic mothers grew up with little interest in sweet food and play – key measures of their ability to enjoy life. MIDNIGHT FEASTERS While the odd late-night biscuit binge won’t do you much harm, making it a habit may damage your memory. According to a University of California study, mice fed during sleep time performed worse in learning and memory tasks.…

Though they may appear no different from any other puppies, these adorable bundles of fur are two of the first pooches to be born via in vitro fertilisation (IVF). IVF, a technique in which eggs are fertilised with sperm outside the body and then implanted into the womb, has been used in humans since the 1970s. However, researchers have struggled to carry out the technique in dogs thanks to differences in their reproductive cycles. If used alongside genome editing techniques, researchers may one day be able to remove genetic diseases and traits from an embryo, ridding dogs of heritable diseases, including those resulting from the selective breeding of pedigree animals. A total of seven puppies – five beagles and two beagle/spaniel crosses – were successfully delivered from their host mother…

YOU RANG? NINEBOT SEGWAY The 21st Century may have failed, thus far, to bring us all jetpacks, but robot butlers are another matter. Developed by a consortium that includes Intel and Segway, NineBot is a Segway-like ‘personal transporter’ that doubles up as a telepresence robot. It’s got built-in cameras and microphones for face and voice recognition, along with detachable arms for carrying stuff. Segway hopes to bring it to market by the end of the year. £TBC, robot.segway.com BLACK BEAUTY SONY PS-HX500 TURNTABLE With the vinyl revival in full swing, sales of turntables are booming – HMV sold one per minute over Christmas. Sony’s getting in on the act with the PS-HX500, which features an analogue-digital converter and USB output as well as switchable line/ phono…

"The signals wouldn't come from a civilisation of organic beings but from some hyperintelligent machine" What drew you to Project Breakthrough? Well, I think SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence) is clearly an enterprise where the pay-off from success would be huge. It would be one of the greatest discoveries of all time and would interest a far wider public than other discoveries. But none of us involved would rate the chance of success as more than a few per cent, and I would rate it less than that. Nonetheless, given that there’s so much public interest, I think it’s hugely welcome that Yuri Milner has offered substantial funding for this activity – otherwise the chance of discovering ET in our lifetime would be zero. What sets this venture apart from…

“AS THE BATH WATER COOLS AROUND YOU, YOU’RE REMINDED OF THE UNIVERSE’S OWN HEAT DEATH” What’s the point of doing anything? We’re all doomed. Not only are we all doomed, but the entire Universe is doomed, its death notice issued in 1854 after a diagnosis by Herman von Helmholt. The cause of death: entropy and the second law of thermodynamics. I came across the idea as I started to witness my own decline into disorder: the baldness sped up and the skin flaked more readily. My cells were getting less orderly by the day, reminding me of the eventual and inevitable death of all things. Entropy is a gift to the melancholy nihilist or weary existentialist. The critic Vivian Mercier wrote that if the second law of thermodynamics didn’t exist,…

In the 1900s, birds were tagged with string around their legs and handwritten identification codes. In the 1940s radar was used to study migrating animals, and by the 1950s sonar was being used. In the last 30 years, scientists have started to track animals using satellite technology. In recent years, tracking transmitters have become smaller and more efficient thanks to improvements in battery technology and the use of solar panels. A swift, weighing just 42g, will carry a transmitter ‘backpack’ of 1.1g – the equivalent of a 70kg human carrying a 2.1kg weight. Generally, 3 per cent of the weight of an animal is considered to be the upper limit and so far Sweden’s Lund University has developed the lightest transmitters weighing just 0.6g. Indirect techniques are used too. For…

1. Cochineals are 5mm-long scale insects that live on cactus plants in South America, Mexico and Arizona. They produce carminic acid in their bodies to make them unpalatable to other insects. 2. Cochineals are farmed on prickly pear plants. It takes three months for the insects to reach maturity and then they are brushed off the cacti by hand, before being packed into bags. 3.The harvested insects are dried and ground up to make cochineal dye. The insects are about 20 per cent carminic acid, yet it still takes 90,000 insects to make a kilogram of dye. 4. The water-soluble dye is used in cosmetics and as a food colouring. Cochineal gives most strawberry yoghurt its pink colour. Look for cochineal extract, carmine or E120 on the ingredients label.…

Core The heart of a star. With an extremely high temperature and pressure, this is where most nuclear fusion occurs. Ion An atom that has lost (or gained) electrons so that it is electrically charged. Stars are made up of ions Nebula A fuzzy object in the sky, from the Latin for ‘cloud’. The word was originally used for anything spread out, including galaxies, but now only for a cloud of gas or dust. Quantum tunnelling The particles that make up matter and light behave very differently to familiar objects. Such particles do not have a specific location, making it possible for them to appear on the other side of a barrier without passing through it. This is quantum tunnelling Standard candle Stars or supernovas with a known brightness are…

1 A STAR IS BORN Stars are formed when clouds of gas are pulled together by gravity. As the gas particles are squeezed closer and closer together, they warm up. Eventually they are pressed together so closely that they begin to join up, giving off energy in nuclear fusion: the cloud has become a star. 2 STARS ARE RESTLESS OBJECTS Stars are restless objects Not all stars are the same: they differ in size, brightness and colour. What’s more, they evolve over time. Most stars will get brighter as they move through their life cycle, until they run out of fuel in their core, at which point many of them fluff up to produce a huge ‘giant’ star. 3 EVERYTHING MUST END The giant phase does not last forever. A…

PHYSICS Is the future nuclear? Five years on from Fukushima, we look at the current state of nuclear power. Can it still play a role in a safer and greener future? NATURE THE INSIDE TRACK Discover the cutting-edge technology that’s revealing previously hidden habits and animal behaviours in the natural world. TECHNOLOGY DRIVERLESS CARS They’ll soon be on our roads, but how will they deal with life or death decisions: could your autonomous vehicle decide to let you die? ROBININCE MONKEY SELFIES The comedian and Radio 4 presenter finds out whether animals can really be self-aware.…

LORD MARTIN REES Martin is the current Astronomer Royal, making him the perfect person to tell us what we should be looking for in our quest to find alien life. Read our interview with him in our cover feature. p40 ROBIN INCE Comedian Robin is a familiar voice on our radio, co-presenting The Infinite Monkey Cage with popular physicist Brian Cox . We’re thrilled to welcome Robin to our pages as our newest BBC Focus columnist. p51 JHENI OSMAN Our new ‘Science in the city’ feature asks key scientists to share the best spots in their home city. Jheni, a keen traveller and science journalist, catches up with Cédric Villani in Lyon this month. p106…

Don’t forget that BBC Focus is also available on all major digital platforms. We have versions for Android, Kindle Fire and Kindle e-reader, as well as an award-winning iOS app for the iPad and iPhone, so you can get your fix of science knowledge wherever you go. Special issues THE BIG BOOK OF WHY We know that our Q&A section is one of your favourite parts of BBC Focus, so pick up a copy of this special edition – it’s stuffed full of answers to all your burning questions. THE UNIVERSE: THE STORY SO FAR Barely a week goes by without some thrilling discovery about the Universe hitting the headlines. So we’ve compiled everything we currently know about the cosmos into The Universe: The Story So Far.…

NASA’s Spitzer and the Hubble Space Telescope have spotted five new stars, and they are some of the biggest ever observed. Two of the new stars have been dubbed ‘twins of Eta Carinae’ and were found 15 million light-years away in the galaxy M83. The others were found in NGC 6946, M101, and M51, all between 18 million and 26 million light-years away. Eta Carinae is the most massive and luminous stellar system found within 10,000 light-years of Earth. It is well-known for its eruption in the 1840s, which resulted in the formation of the Homunculus Nebula in which the star system now sits (pictured above). “The most massive stars are always rare, but they have tremendous impact on the chemical and physical evolution of their host galaxy,” said lead…

“THE POLYMER IS CAPABLE OF FOLDING ITSELF INTO PRECISE SHAPES AND COULD FIND ITS WAY INTO SHAPE-SHIFTING ELECTRONIC DEVICES” As anyone who has tried to fold a square of paper into anything more complicated than an aeroplane will know, origami can be a fiddly and frustrating business. Now, researchers from the State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering in Hangzhou, China, have created a heat-reactive material that does all the work for you. The polymer is capable of folding itself into precise geometric shapes that are predetermined by the scientists. The material could find its way into everything from medical implants to shape-shifting electronic devices, they say. The clever material was made by combining crosslinked polycaprolactone (PCL), an elastic material, with triazabicyclodecene (TBD), a plastic material. This allowed the elastic and…

The next generation of paper-thin wearable sensors are on the way. At CES, medical research firm MC10 showed off two products, both resembling a plaster. My UV Patch monitors exposure to harmful rays and feeds that info to a smartphone app. BioStamp Research Connect, meanwhile, is aimed at researchers investigating neurodegenerative and motor disorders. Elsewhere, Austin-based start-up Chaotic Moon has developed temporary ‘circuit board tattoos’ made of conductive ink that, similarly, can monitor your blood pressure, temperature and heart rate, and then simply be peeled off when you’re finished. Chaotic Moon suggests that in the future, GPS tracking or Apple Pay-like capabilities could be added to the electronic tattoos.…

When the Breakthrough Listen initiative was launched, so too was a sister project called Breakthrough Message. This is a competition to write a digital message to an alien civilisation, with prizes totalling $1m (£660,000). However, there are no current plans to send these messages. “We pledge not to transmit any message until there has been a wide-ranging debate at high levels of science and politics on the risks and rewards of contacting advanced civilisations,” say the organisers. Stephen Hawking is one of many scientists to caution against sending unsolicited messages out into the Universe. Instead, the organisers want to inspire us to think about what information best represents humanity and how it might be presented in a way that an alien civilisation could understand. So what should go into such…

If you were asked to think of a venomous animal, it’s fairly likely that a snake would be the first that springs to mind. They’re also probably the most studied among scientists in search of new drugs. Many snake-derived drugs target the cardiovascular system. Workers on banana plantations who’ve been bitten by snakes often pass out due to severe drops in blood pressure. This led researchers to a peptide in the venom of the pit viper Bothrops jararaca. The drug based on it – blood pressure medication captopril – works by stopping the molecules that would ordinarily prevent blood vessel dilation, allowing them to widen and lower blood pressure. It was the first venom-based drug and continues to be one of the most popular medications on the market. The southeastern…

Native to the Caribbean, the sun anemone uses stinging cells in its tentacles to deliver venom to its prey, stunning small fish and other sea creatures before shovelling them into its mouth. Anemone venom peptides continue to pique the interest of scientists. One promising compound forms the basis of an experimental drug called dalazatide that’s ready to undergo phase II clinical trials for treating autoimmune disease. Instead of suppressing the whole immune system like existing drugs, it very selectively blocks an ion channel in the particular type of immune cells that go haywire in autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and lupus. Kineta, a Seattle-based biotechnology company, is developing the drug.…

“Some people are appalled by the idea of gambling – while ignoring the fact that everyone makes ‘bets’ every day” 1 Make better decisions Some people are appalled by the idea of gambling – while ignoring the fact that everyone makes ‘bets’ every day, from guessing the quickest route to work to deciding whether or not to take a job offer. They’re all choices made in the face of uncertainty. Fortunately, there’s a branch of probability theory that helps cut through the complexity. Called Decision Theory, it’s a powerful way of identifying the choice most likely to give the best result. To use it, we need to consider not only the chances of the various outcomes happening, but also the consequences in each case. Imagine you’ve heard rumours that a…

1 The tag (red dot) attached to an animal starts in hibernation mode, with low power consumption. It contains an internal timer that will cause the tag to ‘wake up’ when the ISS is expected to pass within range. 2 Once the tag has woken up, its receiver will start to listen periodically for the downlink radio frequency signal. This is transmitted by the ICARUS equipment aboard the ISS. 3 The intermittent signal will continue until the ISS downlink signal is picked up. Once the tag receives the downlink signal from the ISS, it extracts the most up-to-date data regarding the ISS’s orbit. 4 Once the tag has picked up the ISS orbit information, it will calculate its relative position to the ISS using its own GPS position on Earth.…

“IT WOULD FEEL WRONG IF WE COULD SEE PEOPLE BEING SHOVED ABOUT BY INVISIBLE FORCES” Standing on a hilltop on a blustery day feels familiar and comfortingly raw, especially if there’s the promise of a decent pub further down the path. But being pummelled by the wind has a side effect, one that we’re so used to that we can’t imagine gusty days without it. That side effect is the sound – the constant roar that seems to come from all directions. Wind noise can drown out almost everything else, so you have to shout to be heard. But I often find myself pondering where this sound comes from. One of society’s favourite philosophical questions is about whether a falling tree makes a noise if there’s no one there to…

“If I do my job properly, it will make a tremendous difference to people’s lives” ScienceGrrl’s (@Science_Grrl) founder explains to Helen Pilcher why girls don’t feel valued for their intellect – and what she’s doing to change this A few years ago, I found myself wondering why women are so under-represented in science. It led me to set up ScienceGrrl, an organisation that celebrates and supports women in science. It was established in 2012 and is about raising the profile of female scientists and engineers so they can inspire the next generation. A heartbreaking survey from 2013 suggested that girls feel valued more for their looks than for their intellect, and that if they voice their opinions they feel vulnerable. Add to this that science unfortunately has the perceived image…

We may still be a long way from Star Trek-style Vulcan mind melds, but we could soon be teleporting memories from one living thing to another. An international team from Purdue University, USA and Tsinghua University, China has published a paper detailing a potential method of teleporting quantum information, or ‘memories’, between two bacteria. The technique relies on a phenomenon known as quantum superposition, in which particles exist in all possible states simultaneously until they are observed and fall into one known state. The most famous example of this was described in Erwin Schrödinger’s famous thought experiment in which a cat is locked inside a box rigged with a poison delivery system triggered by a chunk of radioactive material. If the material decays, the poison is released and the cat…

Call it IMAX for insects: a Newcastle University team has created a 3D cinema system to investigate the vision of praying mantises. The researchers used beeswax to attach specially designed 3D glasses to the insects’ eyes, then played them movies of bugs moving around on a screen. When the images were in 2D, the mantises did nothing. When shown the images in 3D, they struck out at them, proving that the insects see in 3D. The specs used the same principle as the retro blue and red glasses used in old-school 3D cinemas, but with a green lens in place of the red because of the mantises’ different colour perception. The more modern system of using polarisation to separate the two eyes’ images didn’t work because the insects were too…

EXAMOPHOBES If the thought of taking exams leaves you quivering in fear, read on. A team at Stanford University has developed an algorithm that, with 85 per cent accuracy, can predict whether or not students will answer a question correctly. WORRIERS Don’t panic! French researchers have found that anxious people have a ‘sixth sense’ that could help them avoid danger. The effect is due to worriers being more likely to process potential threats in the regions of the brain associated with action.…

RISING SEA LEVELS ARE SLOWING DOWN EARTH’S ROTATION So suggests a study conducted by Harvard University. The effect is due to a shift in mass from the poles to the equator as ice melts, but it poses no threat to the planet, the researchers reassure. AMERICANS’ TEETH ARE NOT IN BETTER CONDITION THAN THOSE OF BRITS A study of 9,000 Brits and 10,000 Americans carried out at University College London has found that there’s actually little difference in the state of their gnashers, contradicting the belief of superior US dentistry. A FULL SOCIAL LIFE COULD BE JUST AS IMPORTANT AS DIET AND EXERCISE Researchers from the University of North Carolina have found a link between social relationships and measures of well-being, such as high blood pressure and obesity. ALLERGIES COULD…

VOLKSWAGEN BUDD-E The VW BUDD-e is an all-electric people carrier with a large touch/voice-controlled screen that combines your dashboard and infotainment systems. Other advanced features include swipe-based control of indicators, wipers and so on, and camera/ screen setups to replace the wing mirrors. HOTZ SMART CAR George Hotz, aka hacker Geohot, has kitted out an Acura ILX saloon with a Linux-based AI system that learns your driving habits, and Lidar to detect other vehicles and pedestrians. Together, they form a DIY autonomous vehicle kit that Hotz hopes to sell for under $1,000. RINSPEED › TOS This self-driving concept car from Swiss automotive think tank Rinspeed is based on a BMW i8. Innovations include a retractable steering wheel (for greater comfort when in autonomous mode), eight HD cameras that give you…

Nope, this isn’t the latest X-Mencostume – it’s the Teslasuit, a full-body haptic feedback device for use with virtual reality systems. This neoprene two-piece uses dozens of electrodes to deliver low-power shocks to key muscles. These electrical impulses trick the brain into thinking you’ve walked through a wind tunnel, been hugged by the person you’re talking to on Skype or been shot in the back by your in-game enemies, for example. Exact applications are still TBC, given that the suit is still only at the prototype stage. With dozens of VR headsets – like the Oculus Rift – due to go on sale this year, there’s bound to be a whole suite of technologies, like this, designed to create ever more immersive experiences. For example, The University of Bristol is…

AUTOMATED PLANET FINDER TELESCOPE As well as searching for radio signals, the Breakthrough Listen project will also hunt for optical laser signals. This survey will be undertaken by the Automated Planet Finder Telescope (APF) at the Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton, San Jose, California. As its name suggests, it’s fully robotic. DIAMETER: 2.4m ROBERT C BYRD GREEN BANK TELESCOPE Located in West Virginia, USA, this is the world’s largest fully steerable radio telescope. It spends 6,500 hours a year listening to space for a variety of astronomical purposes. Perhaps its most notable discovery came when it uncovered one of the heaviest known neutron stars. DIAMETER: 100m PARKES TELESCOPE The second-largest cosmic listening station in the Southern Hemisphere, this observatory is named after a nearby town in New South Wales, Australia.…

“FROM ALZHEIMER’S CURES TO A THEORY OF EVERYTHING – SOME IDEAS SHOULD JUST DIE” Over 40 years after it was first broadcast, Monty Python’s Dead Parrot sketch still makes people laugh. On the face of it, it’s just a silly argument in a pet shop, with customer John Cleese trying to convince shop owner Michael Palin that a parrot he’s just bought from the store is actually dead. But like all the best comedy, it has achieved classic status because it taps into something familiar to all of us. The sketch is really about how some people will go to ludicrous lengths to deny evidence they don’t like. While it always makes me laugh, I’m beginning to worry that the Dead Parrot sketch also reflects an increasingly common feature of…

SUSAN BLACKMORE Susan is visiting psychology professor at the University of Plymouth. Her books include The Meme Machine. DR ALASTAIR GUNN Alastair is a radio astronomer at the Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics at the University of Manchester. ROBERT MATTHEWS After studying physics at Oxford, Robert became a science writer. He’s visiting professor in science at Aston University. GARETH MITCHELL Starting out as a broadcast engineer, Gareth now writes and presents Click on the BBC World Service. LUIS VILLAZON Luis has a BSc in computing and an MSc in zoology from Oxford. His works include How Cows Reach The Ground. Email your questions to questions@sciencefocus.com or post to BBC Focus Q&A, 2nd Floor, Tower House, Fairfax Street, Bristol BS1 3BN Could ammonites swim? RICHARD BARKER, LEAMINGTON SPA Ammonites are a group…

What exactly is a star? It’s a massive ball of plasma, the fourth state of matter on top of the familiar solid, liquid and gas. A plasma like that in a star is the result of heating a gas so much that its atoms lose electrons, producing a mix of positively charged ‘ions’ and free electrons. The sheer amount of matter in a star is phenomenal. The Sun, for instance – our neighbourhood star – contains over 99 per cent of the mass of the Solar System. And it’s more than 300,000 times the mass of Earth. How are stars born? Looking into the night sky, it might seem that most of space is empty, but the gaps between the stars contain molecules of gas, the majority of which are…

1 WHAT CONDITIONS MADE STAR FORMATION POSSIBLE? Initially, the Universe was too energetic for stars to form. But as it expanded and cooled, it became possible for gravity to form clumps of gas. There is a suggestion from the European Planck satellite that conditions made it possible for stars to form within 500,000 years of the Big Bang, but space telescopes and cosmic microwave background detectors will confirm more about the early Universe. 2 THE MECHANICS OF SUPERNOVAS Although there are theories on how supernovas work, there’s not enough evidence that these theories are correct. For example, neutron stars often leave a supernova explosion at high speed, but nobody knows why the explosion favours one direction only. Some of the most useful supernova observations come from X-ray and gamma ray…

1 MARCHÉ DE LA CROIX-ROUSSE One of Lyon’s two main outdoor food markets. Boulevard de la Croix Rousse, 6am-1pm, Tues-Sun 2 BOUCHON DE L’OPÉRA A classic Lyonnaise restaurant. 11 Rue des Capucins bouchondelopera.com 3 NINKASI GERLAND A trendy venue that hosts gigs and concerts. 267 Rue Marcel Mérieux ninkasi.fr/en/locations/ gerland.html 4 HÔTEL DE VILLE DE LYON Lyon’s impressive town hall. 1 Place de la Comédie lyon.fr/lieu/ services-publics/ hotel-de-villede-lyon 5 FRESQUE DES LYONNAIS A famous fresco that features some of the city’s most iconic faces. Rue de la Martinière an Quai de la Pêcherie 6 ÉCOLE NORMALE SUPÉRIEURE DE LYON This university features some interesting architecture. ens-lyon.eu Cédric Villani is a French mathematician. He was awarded the Fields Medal in 2010. Lyon is incroyable! The city combines culture,…

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